What Scripture says
The Bible doesn’t hide the failures of its greatest figures:
- Noah gets drunk and lies naked in his tent (Genesis 9:20–21, ESV).
- Abraham twice lies that his wife Sarah is his sister, putting her at risk to save himself (Genesis 12:10–20, 20:1–18).
- Jacob deceives his blind father to steal his brother’s blessing (Genesis 27).
- Moses kills an Egyptian (Exodus 2:12), and is barred from entering the Promised Land for disobeying God (Numbers 20:12).
- David, “a man after [God’s] own heart” (1 Samuel 13:14), commits adultery with Bathsheba and arranges her husband’s death (2 Samuel 11).
- Solomon, the wisest king, turns to other gods in old age (1 Kings 11:4).
- Peter denies Jesus three times (Mark 14:66–72), and Paul later rebukes him for hypocrisy (Galatians 2:11–14).
- The disciples argue about who is greatest (Mark 9:34), fail to understand Jesus (Mark 8:17–21), fall asleep in Gethsemane and flee at his arrest (Mark 14:37–50).
- Paul calls himself the chief of sinners, a former persecutor (1 Timothy 1:15).
What the evidence says
History
The criterion of embarrassment
Historians use the criterion of embarrassment: details that would have embarrassed the authors or their community are unlikely to be invented, and so are more likely to be true. People rarely make up stories that make their own heroes or leaders look bad.
Examples from the Gospels that historians often cite:
| Detail | Why it was embarrassing |
|---|---|
| Jesus baptized by John (Mark 1:9) | It might suggest Jesus was inferior to John or needed repentance |
| Jesus’ family thought he was out of his mind (Mark 3:21) | Unflattering to Jesus’ family, including James, a church leader |
| Peter’s denial (Mark 14:66–72) | Peter was a leading apostle |
| The crucifixion (1 Corinthians 1:23) | Crucifixion was shameful |
| Women as first witnesses of the resurrection (see 7.5) | Women’s testimony carried less weight |
| Jesus didn’t know the day or hour (Mark 13:32) | A limit on Jesus’ knowledge |
Comparison with other ancient literature
Ancient royal inscriptions and national histories usually glorified their kings and heroes. Assyrian and Egyptian annals rarely recorded defeats (see 5.2). The Old Testament, by contrast, records Israel’s repeated unfaithfulness, the failures of its kings, and its defeat and exile, interpreting them as God’s judgment.
Scripture
Why Scripture tells these stories
The Bible’s honesty about its heroes fits its message: the heroes aren’t the point, God is. Salvation is by grace, not merit (Ephesians 2:8–9). David’s psalm of repentance after his sin with Bathsheba (Psalm 51) became one of the most loved prayers in the Bible. Peter, restored after his denial (John 21:15–19), became a leader of the church.
Philosophy
The criterion has limits. Critics note that embarrassing details might sometimes be included for a purpose: for example, the disciples’ failures might highlight Jesus’ faithfulness. And the criterion shows a detail is likely authentic, not that every surrounding detail is. Still, the overall pattern of candour is widely recognized.
Where they meet
Abraham lies, David commits adultery and murder, and Peter denies Jesus. Historians treat embarrassing details as a sign of honest reporting, since people rarely invent them.
What’s still open
How much weight the criterion of embarrassment can bear for particular passages.
Bottom line
Abraham lies, David commits adultery and murder, Peter denies Jesus. Historians treat embarrassing details as a sign of honest reporting, since people rarely invent them. This is rated Debated.