What Scripture says
The book of Daniel is set in the 6th century BC, during the Babylonian exile. Daniel, a young Jewish noble taken to Babylon in 605 BC (Daniel 1:1–6, ESV), serves under Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Darius the Mede and Cyrus. Chapters 7–12 record his visions, presented in the first person (Daniel 7:2, 8:1).
The visions predict a succession of empires (Daniel 2, 7, 8), and Daniel 11 describes in detail the wars between kings of the “north” and “south”, leading to a king who desecrates the temple and sets up “the abomination that makes desolate” (Daniel 11:31).
Jesus refers to “the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Matthew 24:15).
What the evidence says
History
The two dates
| View | Date | Main argument |
|---|---|---|
| Traditional | 6th century BC | The book presents itself as Daniel’s; Jesus calls him a prophet |
| Critical | c. 165 BC | Daniel 11 is accurate up to about 165 BC, then not |
The critical case
Most critical scholars date the final form of Daniel to about 167–164 BC, during the persecution of Jews by the Greek king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Their reasons:
- Daniel 11 is detailed and accurate in describing the wars of the Ptolemies (Egypt, the “south”) and Seleucids (Syria, the “north”) down to Antiochus IV, including his desecration of the temple in 167 BC.
- Daniel 11:40–45 doesn’t match how Antiochus actually died (in Persia, in 164 BC). Critics argue the author wrote just before that, and his prediction then failed.
- Language: parts of Daniel are in Aramaic, and it contains Persian and a few Greek loanwords (musical instruments in Daniel 3:5).
- Historical problems: “Darius the Mede” isn’t known from other sources, and Daniel 1:1 places Nebuchadnezzar’s siege in Jehoiakim’s third year, which seems to conflict with Jeremiah 25:1.
- Canon position: in the Hebrew Bible, Daniel is placed among the Writings, not the Prophets, which some take as a sign it came late.
This view goes back to Porphyry, a pagan philosopher of the 3rd century AD, whose arguments are preserved by Jerome.
The traditional case
- Belshazzar. Daniel 5 calls Belshazzar the king of Babylon. For centuries, historians knew only Nabonidus as Babylon’s last king. In 1854, inscriptions showed Belshazzar was Nabonidus’s son and co-regent, ruling in Babylon while his father was away. This explains why Belshazzar offers Daniel the “third” place in the kingdom (Daniel 5:16): he himself was second. Greek historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon never name Belshazzar, so a writer in 165 BC would be unlikely to know of him.
- Greek words. Only three Greek words appear, all names of musical instruments, which could have spread through trade long before Alexander. If written in 165 BC, after over 150 years of Greek rule, more Greek would be expected.
- Aramaic. The Aramaic of Daniel resembles the “Imperial Aramaic” of the 5th century BC and earlier, according to some scholars, though others dispute this.
- Darius the Mede may be another name for a known ruler, such as Cyrus himself or his governor Gubaru.
- Daniel 1:1 and Jeremiah may differ only because they count regnal years differently (Babylonian and Judean systems).
Textual Criticism
The Dead Sea Scrolls
At least eight copies of Daniel were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The earliest (4QDan-c) is dated to the late 2nd century BC, within about 50 years of the critical date. The Qumran community treated it as Scripture: a scroll (4Q174) refers to “the book of Daniel the prophet”.
Defenders of the early date argue a book written in 165 BC wouldn’t have spread so widely and been accepted as Scripture so quickly. Critics reply that 50 years is enough time.
Prophecies beyond 165 BC
Some prophecies in Daniel reach past 165 BC:
- The fourth kingdom (Daniel 2 and 7) is traditionally identified as Rome, which didn’t dominate the region until after 165 BC. Critics identify it as Greece instead, splitting Media and Persia into two kingdoms.
- Daniel 9:26 speaks of an “anointed one” being “cut off” and the city and sanctuary being destroyed, which many Christians link to Jesus and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 (see 12.8).
Where they meet
The date of Daniel depends partly on whether one accepts predictive prophecy. The early copies at Qumran and some historical details support an earlier date; the detail of Daniel 11 leads critical scholars to a later one.
What’s still open
- The date of Daniel’s final form.
- How to identify the fourth kingdom.
- Whether some parts are older than others.
Bottom line
The traditional date is the 6th century BC; the critical date is c. 165 BC. Copies among the Dead Sea Scrolls are early, and some prophecies reach past 165 BC. This is rated Debated.