What Scripture says
The New Testament explains Jesus’ death in several connected ways:
- Paying for sin: “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and are justified by his grace as a gift, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, whom God put forward as a propitiation by his blood” (Romans 3:23–25, ESV).
- Taking our place: “For our sake he made him to be sin who knew no sin, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God” (2 Corinthians 5:21). “He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree” (1 Peter 2:24).
- Reconciliation: “in Christ God was reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them” (2 Corinthians 5:19).
- Ransom: “the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45).
- Victory over evil: “He disarmed the rulers and authorities and put them to open shame, by triumphing over them in him” (Colossians 2:15). He died “that through death he might destroy the one who has the power of death, that is, the devil” (Hebrews 2:14).
- Love: “God shows his love for us in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Romans 5:8).
What the evidence says
Interpretation
The problem: sin
Scripture describes sin as more than individual wrong acts. It is rebellion against God, which separates people from him (Isaiah 59:2), brings death (Romans 6:23) and corrupts the world. A holy and just God can’t simply ignore it, yet he loves sinners. The cross is presented as where God’s justice and love meet: God is both “just and the justifier of the one who has faith in Jesus” (Romans 3:26).
Old Testament background
Jesus’ death is interpreted through the Old Testament:
- Sacrifices: animals were offered for sin, and their blood made atonement (Leviticus 17:11). Hebrews argues these pointed forward to Christ, since “it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins” (Hebrews 10:4).
- The Day of Atonement: one goat was sacrificed, and another, the scapegoat, carried the people’s sins away into the wilderness (Leviticus 16).
- Passover: the lamb’s blood protected Israel from judgment (Exodus 12). “Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed” (1 Corinthians 5:7).
- The suffering servant: “he was pierced for our transgressions… the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all” (Isaiah 53:5–6).
Theories of the atonement
Christians have described Jesus’ work in different ways, which many see as complementary:
| View | Focus | Key texts |
|---|---|---|
| Penal substitution | Jesus bore the penalty of sin in our place | Isaiah 53:5–6, 2 Corinthians 5:21 |
| Christus Victor | Jesus defeated sin, death and the devil | Colossians 2:15, Hebrews 2:14 |
| Moral influence | Jesus’ love moves us to repentance | Romans 5:8, 1 John 4:9–11 |
| Satisfaction | Jesus restored God’s honour (Anselm) | Romans 3:25 |
| Recapitulation | Jesus succeeded where Adam failed | Romans 5:12–21 |
History
- Early church writers emphasized Christ’s victory and his sharing our humanity to restore it. Athanasius (4th century) wrote that the Word became human so that humans might share in God’s life, and died to defeat death.
- Anselm (1098) argued that sin dishonours God, and only one who is both God and human could make satisfaction for it.
- The Reformers emphasized penal substitution: Christ bore God’s judgment against sin in our place.
- Peter Abelard (12th century) emphasized the cross as a demonstration of God’s love.
Objections
Some critics argue penal substitution makes God seem like an angry father punishing an innocent son. Defenders reply that the Son wasn’t a third party, but God himself, freely giving himself (John 10:17–18, Galatians 2:20). It is God bearing the cost of his own justice.
Where they meet
The New Testament presents Jesus’ death as paying the penalty for sin, defeating evil and reconciling people to God. Christians emphasize different aspects, but agree on the core.
What’s still open
How the different pictures of the atonement fit together, and which should be central.
Bottom line
Jesus died to pay the penalty for sin and reconcile us to God (Romans 3:23–26, 2 Corinthians 5:21). This is rated Settled.